Archaeological Excavation

(i) Archaeological Excavation in the Background Era of the History of Archaeology

This era marked the excavations that took place out of curiosity. The curiosity for material remains from the past, and the curiosity for the past of humankind inspired people who lived in this era to dig the ground. The first excavation evidently happened during the new kingdom era in Egypt (ca. 1660–1070 BCE). Paraoh at that time excavated and reconstructed the sphinx, which was originally built during the old kingdom. Then the next recorded excavation was the babylon king Nabonidus’ excavation. He excavated and unearthed the stone foundation of a building and interpreted those finds to belong to Naram-Sin. He even gave a chronological date for the monument. This marked the first ever excavation to reveal material data and provide an explanation.

(ii) Archaeological Excavation in the Renaissance Era

This era marked the rapid popularity of excavation for the purpose of finding material remains. With antiquarianism and dilettantism, excavation spread like never before. In the Renaissance era, people conducted excavations in search of lost treasure, lost antiquities, and lost cities and places that were described in myths, legends, and religious texts. During this era, excavation became popular as a method of obtaining antiquities (material remains left from the past).

(iii) Archaeological Excavation in the 18th Century

This era marked the first glimpse of excavation becoming a way to study the past. Excavators began to consider the fact that the excavations needed to be done carefully to obtain data. For the first time, excavators started interconnecting the data obtained from the excavations with the data retrieved from other sources to draw conclusions. This way, the treasure-hunting quests and religious crusades turn into an organised study. This marked the beginning of modern-day archaeological excavation. Excavation in this era consisted of the following steps: selecting a site, planning the excavation, conducting the excavation with specialised knowledge, obtaining data, analysing the data, providing conclusions, and even publishing the report. Excavations at Pompeii and Thomas Jefferson’s mound excavation were at the top of the list during this era.

(iv) Archaeological Excavation in and after the 19th Century

This era marks the most extensive development of archaeological excavation.

In the 19th century and after, archaeological excavation evolved further into a systematic act of study. Pit Reverse, Flinders Petrie, and Mortimer Wheeler were the pioneers of this age who contributed to the development of archaeological excavation. Excavation turned into a well-planned, systematic, and supervised process. Techniques such as mapping, scale drawing, section drawings, plan drawings, and model drawings came into practise. Chronology was considered more than ever to analyse the material remains that were recovered. Mortimer Wheeler introduced new methods, such as the grid method, in excavation. Accordingly, the areas of planning, systematic execution, recording, dating, and publishing in excavation developed like never before.

Meanwhile, with the influence of other sciences such as geology, archaeological excavation evolved according to this new knowledge. For instance, stratigraphy in geology had a huge impact on archaeological excavation. Stratigraphy is important in an archaeological excavation because it enables us to determine the chronological order of layers and the artefacts within each layer. It provides enormous information on the chronological order of past human activities at a site, natural disasters, climate changes, and how humans reacted to environmental changes, etc. Additionally, with the use of natural sciences such as chemistry, chronological dating methods for material remains were introduced. Therefore, archaeological excavation had to become a complex process that concerned the way of unearthing material remains and containing them in such conditions to make them available for highly sensitive lab tests.

Additionally, after the 19th century, with ongoing warfare and development projects, archaeological sites faced a threat of mass destruction. Therefore, immediate excavations were needed to remove the archaeologically valuable material remains before the destruction happened. Also, accidental discoveries were made. To deal with these two types of incidents, archaeology evolved into subdisciplines such as rescue archaeology and accidental archaeology. Accordingly, the use of excavation intensified.

1. To Recover Artefacts and Other Material Remains

Archaeological excavation is important in archaeology mainly because it is the method of obtaining material remains to conduct studies in archaeology. Without excavation, there is no way to have material remain.

But do all archaeological studies need excavations? No. Not all archaeological studies need excavations because some studies are based on previous excavations or explorations, engage in conservation, or research new theories with old data.

2. To Understand the Context of Material Remains

An archaeological excavation not only provides us with material data; it also provides us with a contextual understanding of those material remains. Without context, the material remains incomplete. We can study the material we already have. Or we can unearth and study material remains by doing a simple dig. But, with archaeological excavation, we can study the context of those material remains embedded in the ground to reveal more information.

3. To Reconstruct the History

In the quest to reveal past human culture, behaviour, and cognition, archaeological excavation can reveal all four types of material remains as well as their interconnection. By analysing and interpreting the recovered material remains and the contextual data, we can reconstruct the history of mankind. So the excavation is almost like a passageway to the past.

4. To Test Hypotheses and Theories

Further,  archaeological excavation is the best way to test hypotheses and theories practically. As you may know, hypotheses and theories are formed based on the available data. Therefore, in order to test those hypotheses and theories, we need new data. In archaeology, the hypotheses or theories we introduce are always about the past. So, to test something about the past, we have to have materials to study from the past, and excavation is the way to get them.

5. To Preserve and Conserve Archaeological Heritage

Additionally, archaeological excavation is essential for preserving and conserving archaeological heritage. Some archaeological heritage is decaying and vanishing beneath the ground. We can only preserve and conserve them after conducting an excavation.

1. Selection the Site and Place within the Site

Selecting a site and place to excavate is the first step. To find the best site or the best place within the site, archaeologists conduct a survey. We call this survey an archaeological exploration in a broader sense. Usually, first we select an area to do the survey. Then we set up the grid in the selected area. Then, according to the grid we set up, we conduct a survey to find the best possible place to do an excavation. Setting the grid means using the main sea level indicator nearby, taking the measurements at the site, and dividing the site into longitude lines until one grid is 10m x 10m. Then, within this set-up grid, archaeologists select grids to excavate.

2. Planning and Estimating

According to the selected grid and the purpose of the study, archaeologists plan the excavation. This is where archaeologists decide what type of excavation to carry out and what types of methods to follow. They estimated the duration of the excavation and the budget as well.

3. Execution and Recording

After planning, the excavation begins as planned. As it progresses, archaeologists actively record everything. Usually, as we go forward, removing layer by layer, we should record everything in between each layer. And in special cases, we should do the recording as necessary. There are a few methods of recording, such as plan drawing, section drawing, mapping, model drawing, photography, and videography. There are principles, such as using a scale and a direction indicator, when taking photographs.

When the archaeologists find any material remains, they slow down the excavation and make adjustments to study the context of the material remains as well as the preservation of the material remains. For example, if someone finds full or partial pottery, it should be contained in an airtight and heat-resistant container in order to get reliable lab results. If the pottery piece gets heated by the sun or in any other way, the thermoluminescence dating results could go wrong. If the pottery of an ancient container is opened, it could be contaminated with pollen in the air, so it won’t be suitable for pollen analysis. That means that that finding will not be able to be used to recreate the environment that existed in the past. That way, we could lose the most important data forever. Therefore, there are methods and guidelines for conducting an excavation and recording.

4. Report Writing

After completing the dig, archaeologists write a complete report of the excavation. It starts with the purpose of the excavation and ends with the findings of the excavation. Most importantly, this report is limited to the excavation. Here, archaeologists compose the report, including records of every step in the excavation with all the maps, drawings, plans, photographs, etc. Mostly, this includes the purpose of the excavation, the plan and estimations of the excavation, the detailed records of the excavation, and limitations and problems related to the excavation. After the excavation is over and the conservation starts, it goes under another report as a conservation report. Finally, in the final report, archaeologists include every step in the archaeological study process, from exploration to conclusions.

1. Grid Method

The grid method is one of the major excavation methods in archaeology. Mortimer Wheeler invented this method in the Verulamium excavations in 1930–35, and Kathleen Kenyon refined it in her excavations at Jericho in 1952–58. Hence, we call it the Wheeler-Kenyon method in archaeology.

Wheeler believed in the equal importance of both horizontal and vertical dimensions in excavation recording. His concept was to capture not only the length and width of a site but also its depth and the passage of time. Thus, he invented the grid method, specifically designed for large-scale excavations, which today we term “area excavations”. As Wheeler outlined the criteria for a successful area excavation,

• Clear divisibility for effective recording and control.
• Progressive expansion without compromising initial datum lines
• Preservation of complete vertical sections at multiple points until excavation completion
• Integration potential into broader regional excavations.
• Unhindered access for soil removal without disrupting the site’s layout.
• Adequate openness to enable well-lit inspections at various depths

To meet these requirements, the method involves excavation only along the square perimeters, with unexcavated areas, called baulks, left between the squares to maintain the integrity of the grid. Through the grid method, archaeologists meticulously unravel the layers of history, ensuring comprehensive data collection and systematic analysis.

Read the full article>> Grid Method Excavation in Archaeology

2. Open Method

The open area method is one of the major excavation methods in archaeology and is ideal for large-area excavation. In this method, the entire area of the site that is chosen to be excavated is excavated without baulks or sections. Instead, the entire area of excavation is considered a single excavation pit. Every step of the excavation process takes place accordingly, as it really is a large single pit. As for recording purposes, this method is also based on a grid plan of the site. But the excavation is not always laid out according to the grid. Here, it is free to lay out sections of the plan of the excavation as necessary.

And also, the excavation does not necessarily have to be conducted all at once in the whole area. It can be executed gradually according to the plan or situational needs in any direction and in any shape required. Archaeologists developed this method after the grid method, eradicating the disadvantages of the grid method mainly due to its key feature of baulks.

Read the full article>> Open Area Excavation Method in Archaeology

3. Trench Method

Trench excavation means excavating a long and narrow pit throughout the site. Archaeologists apply this method to excavate features that are horizontally distributed in the site, such as city walls and roads. Additionally, this method allows us to reveal the chronological distribution of features horizontally. For instance, trench excavations across a lard archaeological site can provide us with a clear chronological sequence of human acts, such as the expansion of a city throughout the site. This method allows archaeologists to examine two continuous sections of the site.

4. Quadrant Method

The quadrant method means dividing an archaeological site or mound into four equal quarters and excavating each quarter individually. This method is ideal for mound excavations. For instance, when a Buddhist stupa is excavated, archaeologists apply this method. When the excavation of only one quarter is completed, they can verify almost everything about the stupa underneath. Then, archaeologists have the luxury of excavating the opposite quarter for further understanding. Or they can leave the other quarters unexcavated, as they already have a comprehensive understanding of the feature.

When it comes to Buddhist stupas, archaeologists can leave the other quarters for later studies, or they can start preservation right away once they excavate a quardrant. Because excavating a mound and identifying it as a stupa essentially changes the excavation. Since a stupa is a well-structured architectural feature, not a mound of waste or carcass, excavating the entire stupa mound means destroying the entire archaeological feature. Hence, archaeologists apply the quardrant method for mound excavations as it is the most time-saving, fund-saving, and less destructive method for the subject.

Usually, when the entire area or all four quarters are excavated, archaeologists leave a baulk in between each quarter, leaving it as a huge cross. This baulk facilitates a complete cross-section of each quarter. Also, this provides a section view of the mound, but when the baulks are left, the centerpoint of the mound is left unexcavated. If archaeologists decide not to leave baulks and excavate one entire quadrant or two or all, that provides them with two complete cross sections that lie in the main four directions.

1. Planum Method

What is the planum method in archaeology? The planum method, the arbitrary method, the spit method, or the metrical method is the method in which we remove the soil or any deposit in the excavation spit by spit according to metric units. That means the thickness of a spit is predetermined using metrical units, and a spit usually ranges between 5 cm and 10 cm. The thickness of the spit depends on the study.

When conducting an excavation using the planum method, we remove one spit, record it, and remove the next spit. First, we define the boundaries of our excavation pit. Then we remove the soil according to the pre-determined spits. If we find artefacts while excavating a spit, we leave a pedestal of soil around the artefact until we finish the entire spit. Then we measure and record both the horizontal and vertical locations of the artefacts. After that, we only removed the artefacts and soil pedestals. This process continues until we complete the excavation.

Since we remove layers according to the metric units, recording is easier in such excavations. We conduct recording for each spit, providing a sequence of spit records from top to bottom. Each spit may contain the artefacts found within it, and the larger artefacts may be recorded in a few spits in succession. However, careful attention is required to avoid mixing layers inadvertently. The planum method is important as it can represent the timeline of past human cultural evolution.

2. Context Method

The context method in archaeological excavation focuses on material remains and their natural and cultural surroundings. Context means the artefact or any other material that remains in a deposit with its surroundings. As in the planum method, the removal of material from the dig pit in this method also happens layer by layer. But, unlike in the planum method, we do not leave pedestals around artefacts and wait until we excavate the entire spit. Archaeologists are free to follow through a single context or a few contexts in the excavation pit.

It is very important to understand that in any archaeological excavation, including this one, we remove soil or any other deposit layer by layer. The difference here is that There are no restrictions to archaeologists to excavate the entire spit. Instead, they can choose a certain area of the spit and excavate it deeper without excavating the rest of the spit. Here, this certain area is what we call a context.

For instance, when we find a cut and fill (something like a garbage pit) within the boundary of the excavation, we can continue excavating the cut and fill until leaving the outsite of the cut and fill to excavate later. But we remove the deposition of that context layer by layer. This is like conducting excavations within excavations. As mentioned earlier, this soil removal method comes with the context method of recording.

In this method, archaeologists consider the uppermost layer as context one. Then move deeper, numbering each context according to chronological sequence. So, in this method, we need a thorough understanding to correctly determine which context is chronologically new or old. However, each context is given a number and recorded individually, and since the measurements for each context are taken by each layer as the excavation goes deeper, locating them is never an issue.

1. Pompeii

In 79 AD, the eruption of Mount Vesuvius ensnared the Roman city beneath layers of ash and debris. The volcanic eruption destroyed the entire city instantly yet it preserved it for hundreds of years until excavations happened. Pompeii was first discovered in the 17th century, and excavations began in the 18th century and continue until today. These excavations have revealed an entire city with its inhabitants, including humans and animals. The natural poses, day-to-day life, socio-cultural activities, town planning, living conditions, economic status, gender—everything from the Roman era was revealed. Eventually, the excavations at Pompeii opened the eyes of people around the world to excavations and archaeology.

2. Machu Picchu

Machu Picchu, in Peru, is an ancient Incan citadel in the Andes Mountains. It remained unknown for many years until it was rediscovered in 1911. This remarkable archaeological site features impressive stonework, terraced landscapes, and special ceremonial areas. Through excavations, researchers found various buildings, homes, and farming terraces. These discoveries showcase the advanced architectural and engineering skills of the Incas. By studying artefacts and structures, experts have gained insights into the socio-economic organisation of Incan civilization.

3. Terracotta Army

The Terracotta Army in China has significant historical importance. The discovery of these figures was in 1974 and they belonged to Emperor Qin Shi Huang. This burial site contains a large group of life-sized clay soldiers and horses. These are careful creations from the third century BC and are believed to have been created to protect the emperor’s tomb. Through the excavation, we’ve learned a lot about the military strength and artistic skills of the Qin Dynasty. The detailed sculptures give us a glimpse into how people in ancient China thought about life and death and how they buried their dead. This also shows that the emperor wanted the world to remember him for a very long time.